Us history regents thematic essay

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International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2001. Abstract: Secrecy and censorship involve norms about the control of information. Censorship of communication in the modern sense is us history regents thematic associated with large, complex urban societies with a degree of statement centralized control and technical means of effectively reaching a mass audience. It involves a determination of what can, and can not, (or in thematic, the case of non-governmental efforts should and should not) be expressed in dissertation, light of given political, religious, cultural, and artistic standards. The appearance of us history thematic essay new communications (e.g., the printing press or the Internet) technologies invariably create demands from conflicting groups for greater openness and freedom of communication and demands for greater control. Authorities try (often in vain) to control new techniques of mass communication. Three major means of direct censorship (pre-publication review, licensing and registration, and government monopolization) are preventive in nature. Among democracies there is considerable variation in censorship by content, media of communication, place, time period and across societies. There are degrees of censorship and individual interests are balanced against those of the community, however hard the latter is to define. More common than outright prohibition, is the apa style research proposal example, segmentation of material involving time, place and person restrictions. Direct government means of censorship must be considered separately from the availability of resources to create and distribute information, the activities of private groups and us history regents essay from informal censorship, including exclusion from sources of thesis statement information and self-censorship. In a democratic society secrecy and openness exist in a continual dynamic tension. Secrecy involves norms about the control of information, whether limiting access to it, destroying it, or prohibiting or shaping its’ creation. Secrecy is a general and fundamental social process known to all societies. It can characterize interaction at any level --from information an individual withholds, to secret rites of passage of pre-industrial societies, to the secrets of contemporary fraternal or business organizations, to state-held information on national security. Us History Thematic! Secrecy norms are embedded in role relationships and involve obligations and rights to essays, withhold information, whether reciprocal or singular. In preventing or restricting communication, the legally supported form of censorship discussed here involves secrecy. Yet most secrecy (e.g., concealing information about thematic essay a surprise party or aspects of one’s past) does not involve formal law and the law involves secrecy in many other ways. In a democratic society secrecy and openness reflect conflicting values and social needs and exist in dissertation, an ever-changing dynamic tension. Us History Regents Thematic! Efforts to control information occur in a rich variety of contexts. Norms about the holidays in italy, concealment of us history essay information and thesis statement stereotypes restrictions on communication ideally should be considered alongside of their opposites –norms mandating the revelation of thematic information and protecting the statement, freedom to know and regents essay communicate. Such norms may involve formal legal rules such as Britain’s Official Secrets Act or the United States’ Freedom of Information Act, non-legally binding formal policies such as a bank’s refusal to essay about music festival, reveal client information in the absence of regents thematic a warrant or the a thesis statement, consumer information voluntarily provided on some product labels, or it may involve informal expectations (close friends are expected not to us history regents essay, reveal shared secrets to outsiders but are expected to reveal certain personal details to essay about festival, each other, such as true feelings about shared interests). The correlates and consequences of such variation offer rich material for analysis of the regents thematic essay, sociology of secrecy. This article reviews some selected social forms, processes and consequences of secrecy and the law as applied to censorship. There is no widely agreed upon general theoretical or conceptual framework for about music, considering secrecy issues. Given their social importance, there is a surprising lack of empirical or explanatory research seeking to us history thematic, understand the contours of secrecy and openness and why, and a thesis statement with what consequences, some forms have the support of law. Nor has there been much research contrasting different forms of legal secrecy. Philosophers have considered ethics, (Bok 1989) students of politics the implications for us history regents thematic, democracy, (Shils 1956, Laquer 1985, Donner 19 Moynihan 1998) and other social scientists have studied the patterning, processes and correlates of about information control rules across institutions and us history regents societies. (Simmel 1964, Goffman 1969, Tefft 1980, Wilsnak 1980, Scheppele 1988).The largest body of forest gump work is by legal scholars emphasizing jurisprudence in often related areas such as the us history, First Amendment, obscenity and apa style research pornography, national security and executive privilege, freedom of information, trade secrets, privacy and confidentiality, informant identities, fraud and implied warranties, but generally ignoring explanation or broader social processes. 2.1 Definitions and Differences. Censorship of communication in the modern sense is associated with large, complex urban societies with a degree of centralized control and technical means of regents essay effectively reaching a mass audience. It involves a determination of what can, and can not, (or in the case of non-governmental efforts should and should not) be expressed to a broader audience in light of holidays in italy given political, religious, cultural, and artistic standards. Censorship may involve withholding or editing existing information, as well as preventing information from being created. In the interest of regents thematic essay keeping material from a broader audience, content deemed to be offensive or harmful to apa style proposal example, public welfare is suppressed or regulated. At the us history regents thematic, most general level any rule, whether codified or customary, proscribing self-expression (e.g., nudity, hair styles, body adornment, language use) or the surveillance and suppression of personal communication (phone, mail) can be seen as a form of censorship. But our focus is primarily on state-supported efforts to control mass communication justified by claims of protecting the statement, public interest, a form with profound implications for a democratic society. Censorship assumes that certain ideas and us history thematic forms of expression are threatening to individual, organizational and societal well-being as defined by those in power, or those involved in a moral crusade and hence must be prohibited. It presupposes absolute standards which must not be violated. Much censorship assumes that all individuals, not just children, are vulnerable and statement stereotypes need protection from offending material --whether pornography or radical criticism of existing political and religious authority. Individuals can not be trusted to decide what they wish to see and read or to freely form their own opinions. Some censorship is largely symbolic, offering a way to enhance social solidarity by avoiding insults to shared values (e.g., a prohibition on flag burning). It may be a form of moral education as with prohibitions on racist and thematic essay sexist speech. Or masquerading under high principles of protecting public welfare and morals, it may simply involve a desire to protect the interests of the politically, economically and candide religiously powerful by regents restricting alternative views, criticism and delegitimating information. Among the most common historical rationales are political (sedition, treason, national security), religious (blasphemy, heresy), moral (obscenity, impiety), and social (incivility, irreverence, disorder). These of course may be interconnected. What they share is a claim that the public interest will be negatively affected by the communication. Censorship may be located relative to other legal forms of secrecy. Censorship is justified by the protection of public welfare. Rationales for is, other legally supported forms include: the protection of private property for trade secrets; economic efficiency and fairness justifications in common law disputes over secret information; the thematic essay, encouragement of honest communication and/or protection from retaliation underling forms such as lawyer-client and doctor-patient confidentiality, the secret ballot, and a judge’s en camera ruling that the identity of an informant need not be revealed; the protection of intimate relations in the case of spousal privilege; the protection against improperly elicited confessions underlying the 5th Amendment; the strategic advantage justification of forest gump sealed warrants and indictments and regents thematic the respect for the dignity and privacy of the de voltaire, person justification for limits on the collection and us history regents use of a thesis personal information, whether involving census, tax, library or arrest (as against conviction) records. There has been little empirical research on whether, how well and with what consequences and us history essay under what conditions these justifications are met. Censorship is involuntary, unlike a non-disclosure agreement that parties to candide de voltaire, a court settlement voluntarily agree to. Us History Regents Thematic Essay! Censorship is unitary and non-discretionary --those subject to it don’t have the option of communicating. In contrast the dyad of a confidential professional relationship is discretionary for one party such as the client and with the client’s permission, a doctor or lawyer may reveal confidential information. Censorship seeks to withhold information from a mass audience, rather than a given individual, as with controversial laws preventing revelation of the identity of birth parents to adoptees. Forest Gump Thesis! Where information exits but censors prevent its’ release, it is intended to remain secret. In contrast are legal secrets involving a natural cycle of revelation such as sealed indictments and search and arrest warrants which become known when executed, or an us history, industry confidentiality agreement which may expire after a few years. A Thesis Statement Is! Censorship as a form of secrecy stands alone. It is not reciprocally and functionally linked with its’ opposite –the legal mandate to reveal. For example some civil grand juries compel testimony, but then promise to keep it confidential. Censorship is distinct from government regulation of fraudulent or deceptive commercial communication, which, unlike opinion and artistic expression, offers a clearer basis for empirically determining truth, as with the Federal Trade Commission’s truth in advertising requirements. Censorship is separate from restrictions on us history regents thematic communication based on copyright infringements where the issue is not secrecy, but wrongful use. It is also distinct from editorial gate-keeping based on other criteria such as quality, cost, demand, and relevance and in the case of thesis statement on gender stereotypes regulating public demonstrations and entertainment, public safety and order. These can of course mask a desire to censor which would not otherwise be legally supported. Government legitimated censorship is distinct from censorious outcomes that may result from the us history regents, actions of private groups. With the separation of church and state, only censorship by government has the support of law. Non-governmental organizations such as a religious group or social movement may prohibit, or attempt to dissuade, members and others from producing, disseminating, or reading, listening to or viewing material deemed objectionable. They may request editorial changes, advocate boycotts and lobby school boards, libraries, book stores and theaters to exclude such material. When we look at social processes of information control such as withholding information and selective presentation, a form of censorship may sometimes be seen in propaganda, public relations and advertising, as public and private sector actors pursue their interest in creating favorable public impressions. Consider for example cigarette companies withholding information on the health risks of smoking or tire manufacturers not revealing the knowledge that their tires are unsafe. 2.2 Historical Development. Interest in the topic is strongly related to candide de voltaire, developments in thematic, communications technology and current events. In the dissertation de voltaire, modern period, continuing a trend that began with the printing press, new technologies involving newspapers, mass produced books and magazines, radio, telegraph, telephone, television, film, audio-cassettes, video, fax and the internet, with their unprecedented ability to relatively easily, inexpensively, and efficiently reach large numbers of regents essay people, have created demands from conflicting groups for greater openness and freedom of communication and greater control over statement it. The conflict and debate continues –note conflicts over cable tv and efforts to regulate content and access to the internet . Following the 1970s revelations in the Unites States about regents thematic essay Watergate and government spying and disruption of the forest, civil rights and anti-war movements, the ground breaking Freedom of Information Act was passed and us history essay the Supreme Court strongly re-affirmed the a thesis, principle of us history regents thematic no prior restraint on the press in the Pentagon Papers case (New York Times 1971). As shown by thesis statement stereotypes the example of Socrates who chose to die rather than to have his ideas censored (or Plato who argued for censorship of the arts), the us history thematic, Romans who censored plays and banished offending poets, Pope Gelasius in the fifth century who issued the first papal list of prohibited books and the Inquisition beginning in 1231 indicate, technology is hardly needed to festival, spur censorship. However demands for censorship of religious and political ideas gained significant momentum in the 15th century with the appearance of that most subversive of technologies (after the invention of writing) --the printing press and the subsequent spread of literacy. This broke the historic monopoly, however limited, of religious and government institutions on communication with the masses. Authorities tried and are still trying (often in regents, vain) to control the new techniques of mass communication. Later with the separation of church and state and the increased power of the nation state, the apa style research proposal example, reach of religious censorship declined (e.g., prosecution for blasphemy) while political censorship gained in importance, as did ideas of free expression which both countered and regents essay provoked censorship. In the West, cultural values from the enlightenment elaborated on by Emanuel Kant and later J.S. Mill and others stressed the importance of freedom of expression and openness as central to finding the truth and for the stability and effectiveness of a thesis is democratic government. Individuals were optimistically assumed to be responsible and rational beings who would reach the best conclusions, whether involving normative or empirical truth, with full information and discussion. Scientific ideals involving the ability to question and the freedom to communicate fit here as well. For both government and science, visibility or transparency is believed to be a central factor in accountability. Later arguments emphasized that the psychological well-being and dignity of the person were best served by us history regents the freedom to express one’s self and form one’s own opinions. The argument based on personality has been stronger in holidays, Europe than in the United States. In the last half of the 20th century, with the allies’ victory over fascist governments in WWII, the fall of colonialism and the ending of the cold war, the cultural force of democratic ideals involving freedom of inquiry and expression have grown stronger. The principle of freedom of expression is contained in us history thematic essay, the First Amendment to statement stereotypes, the United States Constitution, various United Nations documents, European Constitutions and documents such as the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. Thematic Essay! In the a thesis statement, United States, the Supreme Court’s extension of the protection of the First Amendment to the states, meant that numerous 19th and early 20th century state and local laws sanctioning censorship were in principle unconstitutional, although in practice there was often strong local support for such laws. This can be seen in struggles over education (e.g., the Skopes “monkey” trial involving the teaching of Darwinism in Tennessee in 1925), the us history regents essay, routine denial of First amendment rights to labor protestors up to the 1930s and holidays in italy essays civil rights protestors through the 1960s and various local struggles over efforts to ban books from libraries. For western style pluralist democracies, formal government censorship is the exception rather than the rule, at least relative to absolutist authoritarian regimes which believe they have the only truth (whether political, religious or moral) and do not permit opposing views. In 2000, an annual survey of press freedom found that 80% of the world’s population live in nations with less than a free press. About one-third of the countries were considered to have free press and broadcast systems and one-third had systems with strong government control. (Freedom House 2000) An extreme example is from the government of Iran where Salaman Rushdie’s book Satanic Verses was not only banned for being blasphemous, but a reward was offered for Rushdie’s death. Direct organizational means of government censorship must be considered separately from the availability of resources to create and distribute information and from informal means of censorship, whether by us history thematic government or private interests, including self-censorship. Example! While freedom of expression is a central component of the modern democratic state, among democracies, there is considerable variation in us history regents thematic, censorship by content, media of communication, place and time period. Constitutional and legislative guarantees of the individual’s right to freedom of expression are not absolute. In considering the social consequences of exercizing a right, courts and legislatures balance it against other rights and community needs and standards, such as the presence of the clear and present danger Justice Holmes wrote of in (Schenck 1919). In the 1968 case of thesis United States v. Us History Thematic Essay! O’Brien the Supreme Court held that local laws could regulate time, place and manner of expression if done in a content neutral fashion, narrowly tailored to serve substantial government interests and if alternative channels of thesis on gender stereotypes expression were left open. There is often disagreement about the social consequences of us history regents expression and how material should be defined. Thus does exposure to sexually or violently explicit words and images result in incitation and mimicry as some research claims (Itzin 1993, National Academy of Sciences 2000) or is it a safety valve and alternative to expressing these, as others claim (Segal and thesis on gender McIntosh 1993, Hein 1993)? Does the prevalence of violent and sexual content reflect or create public demand? Can a reasonable consensus be reached on the distinction between pornography and erotic art? Can heterogeneous, rapidly changing societies with multiply porous borders meaningfully talk of community standards? There has been little research on variation in us history thematic, censorship. Political and research proposal example religious expression has generally received greater legal support than other forms such as sexual expression. Printed matter has greater protection than other media. Film, live audience presentations, the internet and cable tv have greater protection than conventional television and radio where there is a scarcity of spectrum. Us History Regents! Artistic expression likely to raise the concerns of censors is generally ignored until it seeks to a thesis statement, reach a mass audience via the media or museums. Material appropriate for adults may not be for children. Freedom of expression and access to information generally have greater protection in the United States than in Europe (e.g., greater tolerance of hate and other offensive speech, and stronger freedom of information laws and protections against us history regents essay, libel suits). 2.3 Methods of Censorship. Three major means of direct censorship are preventive in nature. Their goal is to stop materials deemed unacceptable from appearing, or if that is not possible, from being seen or heard by prohibiting their circulation: Formal pre-publication review requires would-be communicators to submit their materials for certification, before publicly offering them. Candide! Soon after the invention of the printing press, the Church required review and approval before anything could be printed. However impractical and difficult to enforce in the contemporary period, to essay, varying degrees such “prior restraint” is found in authoritarian societies, whether based on secular political (as in dissertation, Cuba) or religious doctrines (as in Iran and Afghanistan ) at us history essay the turn of the century. It may be seen in democracies during emergency periods such as a war. There may be formal review boards or censors may be assigned directly to work at newspapers and broadcasting stations. Government or interest group monopolization of publication. Here the censors in effect are the forest gump, producers and are the thematic essay, only ones allowed to offer mass communication. For much of its history the church was intertwined with government and in effect was the only publisher. In the former Soviet Union the forest thesis, press and media were government controlled and private means were prohibited. Licensing and registration. The means of production and transmission of information may be limited to trusted groups who agree to self-censorship in us history regents thematic, light of prior restrictions. In England in the 16th century printing was restricted to one official company and all books had to be cleared by religious authorities prior to publication. Four centuries later China required that all internet content providers be registered with the government and research example abide by vague content restrictions. Permission may be required to own a printing press, and in some countries even ownership of a typewriter has been regulated. Government subsidized programs for the arts and journalism may come with political and cultural strings attached. In the Soviet Union sponsorship of artists and writers associations stressed “socialist realism”, a doctrine which held that art should serve the purposes of the state. Those rejecting this were neither subsidized, nor offered access to the public, and risked prosecution, as with Nobel Prize winning author Alexander Solzhenitsyn. In the us history regents essay, United States in 1990 The National Endowment for apa style example, the Arts, under prodding from Congress, required that grant recipients sign a non-obscenity oath and that artistic merit be determined by taking into account general standards of regents thematic essay decency. A federal court (Karen 1992) held that the decency clause was too broad and that public funding of a thesis is art was entitled to First Amendment protection. A related aspect involves an informal de-licensing in which individuals deemed to be untrustworthy relative to the official standards are prohibited from communicating. For example during the us history regents thematic, 1950s, Hollywood film writers suspected of communist sympathies were prohibited from working in the industry via a blacklist. A more subtle form of dissertation candide exclusion involves denying access, as when government officials provide information only to favored journalists believed to put an acceptable slant on their reports. Even where the means of communication are freely available in a legal sense, inequality in resources often means that many potential voices go unheard. Journalist A.J. Leibling has observed, “freedom of the press is assured to those who own one”. A related issue involves the trend toward consolidation of newspapers, magazines, television and regents thematic motion pictures under fewer and fewer owners. De Voltaire! Such monopolies are unlikely to express as wide a spectrum of us history regents essay viewpoints as would be found with more decentralized ownership. Gump Thesis! A related area of us history regents thematic licensing can be seen in local requirements that those wishing to hold a public demonstration obtain a permit. Given Constitutional protections, such permits are usually granted in the United States, although there may be restrictions justified by essay about the need to maintain public order. In Western democracies broadcast media (e.g., radio and television), unlike print media are subject to licensing. The scarcity of band-width requires government regulation and depending on the criteria used, can be an invitation to censorship. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission for example has ambiguous rules regarding the control of broadcast content. The use of certain four letter words deemed to be indecent is prohibited. Although rarely exercised there is the possibility of license revocation or non-renewal for violations. After comedian George Carlin used the word "fuck" in a late night broadcast in 1973, the offending radio station received a warning letter from the FCC. The station then sued, claiming that FCC regulations on indecent speech violated the regents thematic essay, First Amendment. The Supreme Court (FCC v. Essay Festival! Pacifica Foundation 1978) upheld the FCC and added an additional controversial, very broad censorship rationale known as the “pervasiveness doctrine”. Regulation is regents thematic required because, “the broadcast media have established a uniquely pervasive presence in the lives of all Americans” and offensive and indecent material delivered over the airwaves confronts the citizen, “not only in public, but also in the privacy of the home”. Given the ease with which indecent communications may enter the is, home, children must be protected from unwillingly or willingly encountering them. The elastic quality of a standard such as “pervasiveness” could be used to justify censorship of any form, even books and newspapers which also pervade society. Indeed when Congress passed the Communications Decency Act in 1996 to regulate internet content, a medium not characterized by spectrum scarcity, it was argued that the internet pervades the regents, home just as the radio and television do and hence must be regulated. However the Supreme Court found this Act unconstitutional in ACLU v. Reno in 1997. As the internet evolves, and to the extent that it becomes a platform for forest gump thesis, delivering voice and video communications that parallel traditional broadcasts, conflicts over the appropriateness of its regulation will likely intensify. In contrast are means applied after the fact which seek to us history essay, literally block or destroy communications or to thesis statement on gender stereotypes, punish and deter. A classic example, likely seared on regents thematic essay the memory of anyone who has seen it on holidays film, is the Nazi’s burning of books in 1933. Materials originating from suspect sources that do not cooperate with censors and/or are from outside a country may be categorically blocked. This may happen through technical means as when the former Soviet Union electronically jammed communications of Radio Free Europe or through the seizure of material at borders. China has created an electronic wall around its internet to regents, block access to material from non-approved sources (e.g., among sites blocked are the New York Times and CNN). Until the United States Supreme Court (U.S. A Thesis Statement Is! 1934) found that James Joyce’ Ulysses was a work of art, even though it contained “dirty words”, U.S. customs authorities routinely seized literature deemed inappropriate. The U.S. Regents Thematic Essay! Postal Service prohibits the importation and apa style example domestic transmission of certain forms of obscene communication. With the 1934 decision we see the seeds of later Supreme Court rulings such as in Miller (1973) which held that work could be prohibited only if taken as a whole it had no redeeming value as art or science, was patently offensive, and was not in keeping with local community standards. The conflict between the principle of no prior restraint and any modern society’s legitimate need to control some communication has resulted in a variety of after-the-fact sanctions (e.g., criminal offenses involving espionage, revealing national secrets, obscenity, pornography, and incitement, injunctions to us history, cease publication and administrative sanctions, and civil remedies such as invasion of about privacy, libel, and defamation). In the us history regents thematic essay, United States in forest gump, 2000, in contrast to Britain which has an Official Secrets Act, the disclosure of us history regents thematic properly classified information (with certain exceptions such as information on the design of on gender nuclear weapons and the names of intelligence agents) is not a crime. However disclosing such information can result in losses of security clearance, dismissal and fines. Communication has a special quality unlike most other legally regulated subjects. Us History Regents! There is holidays essays a paradox and some uncertainty and risk for communicators, particularly those pushing boundaries, in thematic essay, that while most communications can not be legally prohibited before they are offered, once offered legal penalties may apply. The goal here, beyond punishment for the infraction in question, is to warn and a thesis deter others in the hope of encouraging self-censorship. On a statistical basis the major form of censorship in western societies is self-censorship. Regents Thematic Essay! Publishers, editors, and producers of mass communications are aware of borders not to be crossed, even though there are many gray areas. Communicators generally stay within the borders, whether to avoid prosecution or law suits, to avoid offending various social groups, to keep the holidays essays, channels of government information open, to please stockholders and advertisers, or out of their sense of patriotism and thematic morality. Press and broadcast organizations (e.g., The National Association of gump Broadcasters) and the major newspapers and television networks have codes of ethics and voluntary standards. Between a journalist writing a story and its’ appearance there are several levels of review. The large broadcasting companies have internal units that review everything from advertisements to program content before they appear. Regents Thematic! When Elvis Presley appeared on national television for the first time, only his upper body was shown, given censors’ concern with what was then considered to essay music, be his prurient hip shaking. Another prevalent non-governmental means, often undertaken to avoid the threat of more stringent government controls, involves voluntary rating systems. Here the goal is not to ban the material but to give consumers fair warning so they can make up their own mind. In the 1920s the Motion Picture Association of America created a seal of approval for films meetings its standards. In 1968 it created its rating system (expanded in 2000) for films based on essay nudity and violent content. Some comic books, tv programs and music videos, video games, music and web sites are also rated. This may be welcomed as consumer information or seen as censorship that can chill expression and create an undesirable climate, opening the door to greater control. Technical means of information control such as the v-chip which permits programming a television set so it will not receive material deemed objectionable and various software filters which screen web cites for proposal, sexual and violent content facilitate private control. Us History Thematic Essay! Such means are seen as more efficient than a heavy handed government censor and more consistent with an open, highly heterogeneous society. Those who want such material have access while those who might be offended can avoid exposure. There are degrees of censorship. More common than outright prohibition, particularly in the case of candide de voltaire erotic material (which has received increased legal protection in recent decades in the face of local legal prohibitions that appeared in the 19th century), are time, place, manner and person restrictions –whether required by government or undertaken voluntarily. Potentially offensive material is segmented and walled off from us history thematic those for whom it is deemed inappropriate. For example pornographic material may be restricted to red light districts, to gump thesis, adults and to late night programming when minors are presumed not to be watching, children may be prohibited from certain concerts and stores may refuse to essay, sell them violent videos. 2.4 Limitations of Censorship. While government censorship makes a symbolic statement, it is often rather impractical beyond the short run, given the ubiquitous nature and continual improvements in mass communication technologies and the leaky nature of most social systems. Of course computer based technologies may make it easier to track whom an individual communicates with and what material they access. But on apa style proposal balance, technology appears more likely to regents, be on the side of freedom of expression than the side of the festival, censors. The ease of modern communications, in particular remote forms whose transmission can transcend national borders such as the radio, television, fax and the internet and means of reproduction that are inexpensive and relatively easy to use and regents essay conceal such as photo-copiers, scanners, audio and video taping and gump thesis printing through a computer, limit the ability of censors. The internet, if available, has the potential to make everyone a publisher. Its’ “many to many” communication through labyrinthian networks (chat rooms, bulletin boards and e-mail) is far more difficult to censor than the traditional “one to many” communication of the newspaper or television station. Given the expanding scale of published material and the diffusion of communications technology that began with the printing press, government and regents religious bodies are forever trying to catch up. Thesis Statement On Gender Stereotypes! This is the case even in modern highly authoritarian settings. For example in China during the Tiananmen Square protest, fax technology kept China and the world informed of the regents, events. In Iran the fall of the Shah was aided by smuggled audio tapes urging his overthrow. Strong encryption which protects messages also makes the dissertation candide, censor’s task more difficult. Beyond technical factors, censorship is us history regents thematic often accompanied by demand for essay music, the censored material. Censoring material may call attention to it and make it more attractive (the forbidden fruit/banned in us history thematic, Boston effect). Black market demand for such material makes it likely that some individuals will take the risk of creating and distributing it, whether out of conviction or for profit. Potential communicators often find ways to forest gump, avoid or deceive censors whether using satire, parable, code language, changing the name of prohibited publications and through simply defying the law, as with the many underground “samizdat” presses that challenged communist rule in Eastern Europe. It is us history thematic essay also the case that sometimes, “the truth will out”. In a democracy illegitimate political censorship in the name of National Security or executive privilege is vulnerable to holidays essays, discovery –note Watergate and the Iran-Contra affair. In spite of its dependence on government sources, the regents, mass media may play an important counter-balancing role here, watching those who seek to watch. Beyond investigative reporters often using the Freedom of Information Act, such “dirty data” may be revealed by the legal procedure of “discovery” in court cases, by leaks, experiments or tests, whistleblowers and participants with a Dostoyevskyian compulsion to confess and by uncontrollable contingencies such as accidents (e.g., the crash of an airplane carrying Watergate “hush” money). The more complex and important a cover-up or illegal conspiracy, the more vulnerable it is to revelation. Dissertation De Voltaire! Even most legitimately classified government secrets have a shelf life and must be revealed after 75 years. In the long run it is us history essay also difficult for censors to deny pragmatic outcomes and those which are empirically obvious. This raises the intriguing sociology of knowledge question of the relationship between culture with its significant, but not unlimited, elasticity and a level of reality or truth that, when in conflict with culture, may erode it over statement on gender stereotypes time. No matter what the power of the Church to prosecute Galileo for heresy and us history regents thematic essay ban his work, or the amplitude of its’ megaphone to assert the earth was flat, it could not suppress the truth for long. Aumente, J. 1999 “The Role and Effects of Journalism and Samizdat Leading up to 1989” in Aumente J, Gross P, Hiebert R, Johnson O, Mills D (eds.) Eastern European Journalism Before, During and After Communism . Hampton Press, Inc., Cresskill, New Jersey Freedom House Press Survey 2000. Bok, S. 1989 Secrecy on the Ethics of a thesis statement Concealment and regents essay Revelation . Vintage books, New York. Cortez, J. 1996 Giving Offense: Essays on holidays in italy Censorship . University of Chicago Press. De Sola, Pool. Us History Regents Essay! 1983 Technologies of Freedom . Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Ma. FCC v. Pacifica Foundation 1978. Freedom House 2000 Press Freedom Survey. Dissertation! 2000 Freedom House, Washington DC. Green, J. (ed). 1990 The Encyclopedia of Censorhip . Regents! Facts on File, New York. Goffman, E. 1969 Strategic Interaction . University of a thesis statement Pennsylania Press, Philadelphia. Hein, M. 1993 Sex, Sin, and Blasphemy . Free Press, New York. Herman, E. and Chomsky, N. 1988 Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media . Pantheon, New York. Itzin, C. 1993 Pornography: Women, Violence and Civil Liberties . Us History Thematic! Oxford University Press, New York. Karen Finley et al. v. National Endowment for the Arts and dissertation candide de voltaire John Frohnmayer (1992) Laqueur, W. 1985 A World of Secrets . Basic Books, New York. Marx, G. T. Us History! 1984 “Notes on the Collection and Assessment of Hidden and Dirty Data.” in J. Schneider and holidays essays J. Kitsuse (eds.) Studies in the Sociology of the Social Problem . Ablex, New York. Miller v. California 1973. Moynihan, D. 1998 Secrecy: the American Experience . Yale University Press, New Haven. National Academy of Sciences. New York Times Co. v. Us History Essay! United States 1971. Popper, K. 1962 The Open Society and its Enemies . Routeledge & Paul, London. United States v. O’Brien 1968. Segal, L. and essay about music festival McIntosh, M. (eds.) 1993 Sex Exposed: Sexuality and the Pornography Debate . Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, N.J. Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47, 52 (1919). Scheppele, K. 1988 Legal Secrets: Equality and Efficiency in the Common Law . Us History! University of Chicago, Chicago. Shils, E. 1956 The Torment of Secrecy . Free Press, New York. Simmel, G. 1964 The Sociology of Georg Simmel . (K. Wolff ed.) Free Press, New York. Strum, P. 1999 When the Nazis Came to Skokie: Freedom for essays, Speech We Hate (Landmark Law Cases and American Society). University of Kansas Press. Sunstein, C. 1993 Democracy and the Problem of Free Speech . Free Press, New York. Tefft, S. 1980 Secrecy: A Cross Cultural Perspective . Human Sciences Press, New York. United States v. One Book Entitled Ulysses, 1934. Wilsnak, R. 1980 “Information Control: A Conceptual Framework for Sociological Analysis." In Urban Life, January 1980. You are visitor number to this page since January 10, 2002.

Engagement and Learning > What Is_? Programme. I One of the dilemmas of public art has been the difficulty in essay, offering any clear or shared definition. We might say simply that it is art that happens outside of the gallery or museum, but implicit in apa style, this definition is the assumption that public art exists outside the mainstream of us history regents thematic, contemporary arts practice, or at least is secondary to what goes on in the forest main spaces and, as such, it has lacked a certain credibility as a fine art discipline. The lack of us history regents thematic, a clear definition is perhaps one of the in italy essays greatest obstacles for public art and yet, as Cameron Cartier points out "a clear definition is elusive because public art is simply difficult to define". 1 Part of what makes public art practice so difficult to define is that it encompasses a vast umbrella of practices and us history thematic, forms: from permanent sculptures to temporary artworks; political activism; socially-engaged practices; monuments; memorials; community-based projects; off-site museum and gallery programmes; earthworks and land art; site-specific work; street furniture, urban design, and architectural decoration have all been classified under public art. Some argue that categorising public art is misleading – public art is just art. Certainly we see more and more how the gump distinction between an artist's studio practice and one that is us history regents thematic publically motivated (i.e. political, social, situational, or relational) has blurred and apa style research proposal example, there is regents thematic considerable fluidity in candide, how an artist's work resonates within the gallery, art fair, biennial and public project contexts. (Think, for example, of Martin Creed's Work No. Regents Thematic Essay! 850, 2008, with athletes timed to run as fast as they can, one at a time through the Duveen Hall, Tate Britain; or Francis Alяs' When Faith Moves Mountains, 2002 – a performative work in Lima Peru, involving 500 volunteers who with shovels moved a sand dune a few inches – land art for the landless.) What we consider today as public art has been around since the beginnings of art – the Paleolithic cave paintings, such as those at Lascaux, France (no longer accessible to the public) or the frescoes and religious art from the medieval era that spoke to a 'community of in italy essays, interest' about hell, salvation and the divinity of God; or the tradition of regents thematic essay, monuments and memorials increasingly evident in cities and towns since the thesis statement stereotypes eighteenth and nineteenth centuries amplifying battle and us history essay, death and noble heroes. Yet the term Public Art is relatively new. It was coined in the late 1960s in the USA and dissertation candide, UK and associated with government Per Cent for Art programmes (introduced in us history thematic essay, Ireland in 1987), which provide funds for a public artwork linked to capital development – urban regeneration, new roads, social housing, public buildings – and until the last decade involved the commissioning of mostly permanent, site-specific sculpture. Around the same time – the late 1960s and '70s – vangardist artists in the USA, such as Robert Smithson, Richard Serra, Christo, Mary Miss, Nancy Holt, Walter de Maria and Bruce Nauman, consciously broke from the constraints of the gallery and a thesis statement, began producing interventions into us history thematic, the landscape and gump thesis, architecture. The art they made – termed invariably site-specific, earthworks, land art or environmental art – was inseparable from their (non-art) surroundings, creating a very different kind of viewing experience. Walter de Maria's Lightening Field, 1977, for regents thematic essay, example, is conceived to be experienced over thesis statement on gender stereotypes an extended period of us history regents thematic essay, time and involves an overnight stay at the remote site in Western New Mexico. Art historian Rosalind Krauss, keen to map this rupture with high modernism's formalism, recognised the about festival need for a new terminology for sculpture that had moved off the pedestal, into the gallery and out into the environment, titling her influential essay 'Sculpture in regents thematic essay, the Expanded Field'. In this essay she draws on the Klein technique to articulate new boundaries of aesthetics that move towards the limits of postmodernism's formlessness. 2 This 'loosening out' of art's limits has, since the 1970s, generated new categories of (public) art that operate within ever expanding and apa style research proposal, interdisciplinary fields. Spiral Jetty by Robert Smithson, constructed in 1970, is perhaps the thematic best known of these land works and has taken on a mythic status due to its disappearance a few years after it was built, submerging under high level lake water, only to re-emerge in the droughts of 2004. It is a massive spiral earthwork at Rozel Point in Utah, USA, that curves its way out into proposal, the lake; a great swirl of basalt and soil that redefines the us history thematic essay landscape it inhabits with its juxtaposition of industrialism and beauty, decay and rebirth, rot and permanence. It was, writes Lynne Cooke, curator of the Dia Art Foundation, New York, "the sense of ruined and apa style research proposal, abandoned hopes that interested [Smithson]". 3 He was concerned with 'entropy' or energy drain (the reverse of evolution) and thematic essay, saw the future, like Vladimir Nabokov, as obsolete in reserve. Jane Rendell suggests that the distance (and remoteness) we have from many of these earthworks today, such as Spiral Jetty, allows them to proposal example, resonate in more speculative ways and us history thematic essay, they take on essay about music, a sort of heroic quality or site of pilgrimage, as suggested in us history regents essay, Tacita Dean's journey to find the jetty recorded in her 1997 work Trying to find the dissertation de voltaire Spiral Jetty. Thematic Essay! 4 The British artist Robert Long's strategies for art made by walking in the landscape operate in a similar vein of remoteness and pilgrimage, going out into the 'middle of nowhere'. His works are concerned with the relationship between time, distance, geography and measurement, and so walking as a form has enabled him to explore these ideas, while simultaneously extending the boundaries of sculpture – walking becomes art. (Walking is a practice, which other artists such as Francis Alяs use, but for dissertation candide de voltaire, Alяs it is us history regents thematic essay principally the is city that is thematic essay his site, studio and forest thesis, readymade.) Questions of us history regents, monumentality and transience are present in research example, Long's work: stones are used as markers of time or distance, or exist as parts of huge, anonymous sculptures in regents, remote landscapes and his walks are exhibited afterwards in galleries through maps, photographs, texts and floor sculptures. Long's work in IMMA's collection, Kilkenny Landscape Circle, 1991, is a stone circle, an on gender artwork that we might feel resembles the ancient field monuments. Us History Thematic! Long writes, "I consider my landscape sculptures inhabit the rich territory between two ideological positions, namely that of making 'monuments' or conversely, of 'leaving only candide de voltaire, footprints'". 5. Questions of permanence and ephemerality are major themes in public art, and histories and memories find expression in the built environment – but whose history and us history regents, whose memories are recorded and can the monument always maintain its original meaning and purpose? "There is nothing in forest, this world as invisible as a monument" writes Austrian historian Robert Musil. Regents Thematic Essay! 6 How many, for example, would instantly recognise the four angels at the foot of John Henry Foley's Daniel O'Connell Monument, 1882, at the riverside of Dublin's O'Connell Street, as representing the four provinces of Ireland? While historic, artistic and literary figures, and famous dead pop stars, sports people and popular local heroes find their way onto our streets and research proposal, squares, to sit alongside the dead heroes and triumphal arches and public sculptures, they usually take on traditional – generic and heroic – aspects of monumentality. Regents Thematic! But many contemporary artists have found other ways of remembering, both using and subverting the monument as a means in which to readdress everyday and political issues or to disrupt a sense of familiarity, as Rachel Whiteread achieved in her 1993 work House, by casting in concrete a soon-to-be-demolished house in East London, turning inside space out. A Thesis Statement! And, John Byrne's Misneach (Courage), 2010, situated in Ballymun, Dublin – an equestrian statue of us history thematic essay, a girl on a thesis statement, a horse – which shows how an everyday person (a young local girl) can be as much a hero as the regents thematic essay celebrated public figure. The meaning these public artworks will have for a particular public and how the essay music festival public experiences the work becomes a central concern of the artist. Maya Lin's Vietnam Veterans Memorial, 1982, in essay, Washington, is thesis statement the opposite of the traditional overpowering monument – authoritarian, vertical, phallic. It succeeds, as Tom Finkelpearl suggests, in being both abstract and personal – it does not include an image of the dead, but instead names them (naming has been used in many other memorials since, such as the AIDS Memorial Quilt begun in California in 1987 and which still continues today, now the biggest community arts project in the world). Regents Thematic! The Vietnam Veterans Memorial is anti-monumental, anti-heroic, intimate. It includes the viewer as participant in festival, the work in a very physical way. It is, says Lin, made for a "one-to-one experience".7 Conversely, Christo and Jeanne- Claude's 'Wrappings', such as Running Fence, California, 1973, or Wrapped Coast, Little Bay, Australia, 1969, (made with the aid of 130 workers who devoted 17,000 work hours) might also be considered as monuments. The 'Wrappings' offer new ways of seeing the familiar, but only for a short time (like an event), giving them an almost legendary character. Visually impressive and monumental in ambition, scale and execution they perform as spectacles. Us History Regents! Nearly five million people saw the Wrapped Reichstag in Berlin, in 1995. But most of us will only know the essay about music works through photographs and recorded documents. Similarly, Dorothy Cross' Ghost Ship, 1999 – a NISSAN/IMMA award – operated like a public spectacle, but not in a way that 'overwhelmed' the public, it was more subtle, poetic. Regents Essay! Conceived as a homage to the lightships around the coast of Ireland, which were being decommissioned in favour of about music festival, automation, Cross' decommissioned lightship (a found object), was painted in phosphorous paint and with a UV light timed to fade and glow; the obsolete vessel made visible at night in repetitive sequences of appearance and regents thematic, disappearance. Moored off Scotsman's Bay, Dun Laoghaire for three weeks, it demonstrated, like Christo's 'Wrappings', how the dissertation candide de voltaire impact of temporary public artworks can powerfully resonate long after the us history essay work is complete. The focus on everyday life, 'ordinary people' and statement stereotypes, ordinary things and the influences of popular culture on 'high art' originating in historical avant-garde strategies to bring art and life closer, are all evident in us history thematic essay, the work of German artist Stephan Balkenhol. Large Head, 1991, is an everyman (an individual). It sits on a simple table – carved, craggy and cracked. Ordinary rather than idealised, and anonymous rather than heroic, his works represent the familiar strangers that occupy our everyday lives. Julian Opie's life-size walking figures (Sara, Jack, Julian and Suzanne), displayed on holidays essays, the central mall of O'Connell Street, Dublin, walking in the direction of the Hugh Lane Gallery, and mounted on LED screens, use sophisticated computer technology to represent real people as simple outline reductions. They were commissioned by the Hugh Lane Gallery who have successfully used O'Connell Street as a very public platform to connect people to the gallery by using public art that is both immediate (accessible) and 'sophisticated'. Barry Flanagan's exhibition of us history regents thematic, giant bronze hares, for example, was also displayed here. These public works displayed as exhibitions, which are generally for several months, build impact over time, but unlike permanent works seem somehow less threatening for the public and give greater scope for risk taking and experimentation. The successful 'Fourth Plinth' in thesis on gender, London makes a space amongst the monuments of thematic essay, Trafalgar Square for temporary public artworks by high profile artists that capture a large audience and include the people's voice as part of the selection process, through comments on essay, a website. The range of work seen and experienced here is considerable – think, for regents thematic, example, of thesis statement stereotypes, Mark Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant, 2004, a sublime work in white marble of the disabled artist when she was eight months pregnant, or of Antony Gormley's One and Other, 2009, a participatory democratic work that gave 2,400 people the us history thematic chance to spend an hour alone on the Trafalgar Square plinth (many used the occasion to hold up banners supporting charities or protesting). II If defining Public Art is testing, it might nonetheless be helpful to gump, suggest a few things central to the way a public artwork is likely to be considered today. Essay! Firstly, the majority of public artworks result from a public commission often requiring a competitive process, long-term planning, consultation and approval (that said, increasingly public art projects are artist-led, or involve a direct invitation by public art agencies that promote more avant-gardist approaches, such as Artangel, UK or Creative Time, USA). Secondly, there is an emphasis on the public and audience and the relationship the artwork will have with, and for, the people for candide de voltaire, whom it is made. Thirdly, the situation – to us history essay, create artworks in 'real' or virtual places (outside of designated art spaces) – makes context a vital element in how the artwork is conceived, created, located, understood and even authored. Dissertation De Voltaire! It is within this triangulation of the artist, the situation (context, place, site, and commissioning body), and essay, public (audience, participant, collaborators, people) that the public artwork gets made, and we might add negotiated, diluted, compromised, and received. The tendencies for many commissioned artworks, such as those funded under the Per Cent for Art scheme has been to promote the 'usefulness' of art – be that to fill the 'social bond', create visual coherence of a city or transform the image of a public body. How successful art can be in apa style research, performing these functions is thematic essay wide open to debate. Thesis! An advocacy of the non-contentious and the universal benefits of the art commissioned for the general public or promoting coherency of the public sphere, has resulted in the blandness of regents thematic, many public artworks we see in about music, towns, along motorways and in thematic essay, front of corporate buildings. The emphasis on socially-engaged processes and participatory practices is widely embraced as a means of broadening access to the arts through greater social inclusiveness. However, as Claire Bishop points out, governments often compensate for social exclusion through socially inclusive strategies, meanwhile the structural inequalities of society remain uninterrogated. 8. How the public will receive the artwork that they might feel is in italy essays 'foisted' upon them is us history regents indeterminable. Still Falling, 1991, a work in IMMA's collection by Antony Gormley, whose figurative sculpture is generally made from casts of apa style proposal example, his own body, attempts to treat the body not as an object but as a place. Gormley has made some of the best known public artworks and has been invited as a high-profile artist to make work in many cities across the world and also at remote sites – on us history thematic, top of skyscrapers, in the sea and on mountain ranges. Example! His most famous work is the iconic Angel of the North, 1995, which won the hearts of local people only after the regents replica Alan Shearer shirt was thrown over music festival it by a Newcastle supporter. But not all his works have received the same positive response. Regents Essay! For example, his three cruciform cast iron men made for Derry City were attacked and in italy essays, graffittied. Malcolm Miles, writing about this commission, asks how can the metaphor Gormley set up, "to put his body between the two sides to create a poultice to draw the poison from the wounds of Derry", carry the regents burden of these referenced histories? 9. It was Richard Serra's Tilted Arc, 1981, which arguably presented the single most divisive moment in the history of a thesis statement is, public art. Commissioned for us history regents essay, Federal Plaza, New York, the giant Corten steel sculpture was conceived to work in "opposition to the context" – Serra was not "interested in art as an affirmation or complicity" and disdained the need for art to please its audience. 10 The sculpture drew a negative response from the workers, fuelled, many have said, by two judges which eventually led to thesis stereotypes, a court case and the removal of us history regents, Tilted Arc. Thesis! What the regents thematic essay art world saw as "a great avant-garde masterpiece" was, for thesis statement stereotypes, the people who worked beside it, "enormous and threatening". Essay! 11 Tilted Arc is thesis on gender stereotypes a fascinating case study, with the ripple effect of asking how a public artwork is to (or should) engage its public? The critique of 'heavy metal' public sculptures and the removal of Tilted Arc marked, as Miwon Kwon comments, the transition to more discursive models of public art – the shift in which 'site' is displaced by essay, notions of 'audience', a particular social 'issue' and most commonly a 'community' and dialogue, becomes a central ingredient in the work. 12 Suzanne Lacy termed this New Genre Public Art, in 1995, where she distinguished a new form of essay music, public art practice that is not about the object but is based on the relationship between the us history space and the audience. She was influenced by Lucy Lippard's Six Years: The Dematerialization of the Art Object from 1966 to 1972, which focused on ideas, gestures and processes (labelled conceptual art). Lawrence Weiner's Water & Sand + Sticks and Stones, 1991, at the entrance to IMMA, is a conceptual work that sees language as sculpture, where an ambiguity lies between the holidays in italy artwork as gesture and the statement describing the gesture. The desire for essay, a more compassionate identity and deeper engagement with people also found expression in the writing of Grant Kester, whose dialogical aesthetic draws on the philosophies of Jьrgen Habermas and Jean- Franзois Lyotard, to present a very different image of the artist, "one defined in forest thesis, terms of open-ness, of listening and a willingness to accept dependence and intersubjective vulnerability". 13 Nicolas Bourriaud's Relational Aesthetics, written in 1998, drew attention to us history thematic, contemporary arts practice that took its point of departure from the whole of forest gump, human relations and their social contexts. Such highly influential texts encourage more socially conscious approaches to arts practice, where artists work closely with people or in collaboration with people, often embedding themselves within the context where they work. Mierle Laderman Ukeles' Touch Sanitation, 1978-1993, is an early example of New Genre Public Art where, through a self-initiated residency in us history thematic, the New York sanitation department, she began her work by shaking hands with the 8,500 sanitation workers – from street sweepers to managers. The handshake was the start of the 'getting to know' and, with each gesture she would express her thanks for "keeping New York City alive". In Italy! Rick Lowe's Project Row Houses in us history regents thematic essay, Houston, Texas, 1994 – a major self-initiated project involving considerable negotiation in the renovation of a row of vernacular shotgun houses to transform them into homes for a thesis, single mothers as well as project spaces for African American artists (of whom he was one) – came from the artist's desire "not only to put the work in thematic essay, the community, but also to become part of the community". 14 What's the Story Collective – an ongoing project set up in 2008, led by artist Fiona Whelan – builds a dialogical practice based on a set of horizontal working relationships with the young people of music, Rialto Youth Project, Dublin. Investigating power relationships, the project built on the gathering and sharing of personal stories through different forms, including intimate readings with invited audiences. Regents Essay! The main focus has been on the young people's sense of powerlessness with the Gardaн, who have in turn been included in the process, which is to inform a ground-breaking new training scheme for the Gardaн, based on the content of findings. The art made is primarily performative, where the subject is about real people living in real situations. The level of personal commitment given by such artists to these particular situations stems from a desire to make a difference (to offer the promise of a better world) and their practices, politically motivated, often offer new aesthetic forms that represent a counter-argument to more bureaucratic programmes of gump, social inclusion. Nevertheless, a challenge for much socially-engaged public art practice is us history regents essay how to critique and evaluate it as art. The emphasis on empathy and ethics places less value on the aesthetic and political impact, crucial, as Claire Bishop argues, to critically discussing and analysing the work as art. She seeks "shock, discomfort, or frustration – along with absurdity, eccentricity, doubt or sheer pleasure, as crucial to a work's aesthetic and political impact." 15 Bishop cites Jeremy Dellar's Battle of Orgreave, 2002, as an exemplary work that deals with an industrial dispute (the 1984 miner's strike), but in a way that mixes the political narrative with eccentric middle class weekend leisure (the historical re-enactment societies). For Bishop, Dellar's work dismantled any form of sentimentality of class unity and suggests that "the whole event could be understood as contemporary history painting, one in which representation is collapsed with real-time re-enactment". In Italy Essays! Seamus Nolan's Hotel Ballymun, 2007, commissioned by the forward-thinking Breaking Ground Per Cent for Art Programme 2002-2010, presents a particularly special and regents essay, distinctive project. Nolan organised the process around a collaborative relationship with local people helping him to design and build a fantasy space, through salvaging and reimaging objects, furniture and items from the flats, to create a real hotel, on top of a soon-to-be-demolished tower block. Holidays! The hotel was a functioning micro-society with bedrooms, a gallery, music venue, conference centre and garden. The surreal and us history regents, utopian experience (people could stay the night) became a springboard, as Mark Garry writes, for contentious opinions that "slipped into festival, negative clichйs about the practice of socially-engaged art in us history regents thematic essay, working class areas". 16 But in this way, this extraordinary work offered what Garry suggests, "a mechanism to in italy essays, question the position contemporary art holds within the capitalist model, encouraging a possible rethinking of the possible social function of art". 17. The influence of spatial theory, such as the writings of Henri Lefebvre (The Production of Space), Michel de Certeau (The Practice of Everyday Life) and Doreen Massey, who argue for a more nuanced and complex understanding of regents thematic essay, place as unfixed, contested and multiple, is reflected also in the writings of Simon Sheikh, who speaks of the fragmentation of the public sphere, which we do not enter into equally as a common shared space. And just as there is no unified public sphere, there is, he argues, no idealised or generalised public. The meaning of a public artwork will shift in relation to space, contexts and publics (an individual spectator brings his unique experiences – inclusive of statement stereotypes, age, class, gender, background – to the particular situation or art experience). Such a shift in understanding, according to Sheikh, suggests a different notion of communicative possibilities and methods for the artwork, that take their point of departure from us history regents, different fields or disciplines, or a specific rather than general public, or a particular context or site. 18. On the Irish public art website – publicart.ie – there are numerous examples that demonstrate the many directions (and forms) that public art is taking in Ireland and internationally. The possibilities within this relatively young movement to present unique opportunities to explore the multifold realities of the contemporary world, surely must make this a credible fine art discipline? © Cliodhna Shaffrey, 2011. Cameron Cartiere, 'Coming in from the Cold, A Public Art History', in holidays in italy essays, Cameron Cartiere and Shelly Willis (eds.), The Practice of Public Art, London/New York: Routledge, 2008, p. 3. Rosalind Krauss, examining the changing dynamics of sculpture in her now-famous essay, developed the expanded field model in regents thematic, 1979, which is based on a series of in italy, exclusions through a binary model of architecture, not landscape and landscape not architecture. Regents! Continuing a logical expansion of these sets of binaries, the model is transformed into a quaternary field to apa style, mirror the original opposition and regents essay, includes Site Construction, Marked Site, Sculpture, and Axiomatic structure. See http://www.diaart.org Jane Rendell, 'Space, Place, and Site in Critical Spatial Arts Practice', in Cameron Cartiere and Shelly Willis (eds.), The Practice of Public Art, London/New York: Routledge, 2008, p. 36. See http://www.richardlong.org Robert Musil, Monuments: Posthumous Papers of a Living Author, trans. Peter Wortsman, Hygiene: Eridanos Press, 1987. Tom Finkelpearl, Dialogues in Public Art, Interview with Maya Lin, Cambridge, MA/London: MIT Press, 2000, pp. 117-121. Claire Bishop, 'The Social Turn: Collaboration and Its Discontents', in Artforum, February 2006. Also see http://www.publicart.ie/en/main/criticalcontexts/writing/ archive/writing/view//422b08b059/?tx_pawritings_uid=4 Malcolm Miles, 'Critical Spaces: Monuments and Change', in dissertation, Cameron Cartiere and Shelly Willis (eds.), The Practice of Public Art, London/New York: Routledge, 2008, pp. Regents Thematic! 67-68. Tom Finkelpearl, Dialogues in Public Art, Interview with Douglas Crimp on Tilted Arc, p. 61. (The quote is from Richard Serra, recorded in Clara Weyergraf-Serra and Martha Buskirk (eds.), The Destruction of Tilted Arc Documents, Cambridge, MA/London: MIT Press, 1991, p. 13.) Douglas Crimp recounting William Rubin (Director of Painting and Sculpture at MoMA) who suggested at the testimony that all the great avant-garde masterpieces that were opposed in their historical moment … eventually everybody would come to see that this is a great work of art. See Tom Finkelpearl's Dialogues in apa style research example, Public Art, Interview with Douglas Crimp on Tilted Arc, p. 71. Regents Essay! Miwon Kwon, One Place after Another, Site Specific Art and Locational Identity, Cambridge, MA/London: MIT Press, 2004, p. 109. Grant Kester, Conversation Pieces: The Role of Dialogue in Socially-Engaged Art, California: University of San Diego, 2004. http://digitalarts.ucsd.edu/ gkester/ Research%20copy/Blackwell.htm Tom Finkelpearl, Interview with Rick Lowe on Designing Project Row Houses, in Dialogues in Public Art, p. 239. Claire Bishop, 'The Social Turn', op cit. Mark Garry, 'Enabling Conversations', in Seamus Nolan, Hotel Ballymun (Exhibition Catalogue), Dublin: Breaking Ground, 2008. Ibid. Simon Sheikh, In the Place of the Public Sphere? Or the World in Fragments, Berlin: b_books, 2005. (See also publicart.ie – critical writing: http://www.publicart.ie/main/ critical-contexts/writing/archive/writing/view//30268a07af/?tx_pawritings_uid=27.) Irish Museum of Modern Art, Royal Hospital, Kilmainham, Dublin 8, D08 FW31, Ireland.